Critical Evaluation Toolkit

Questioning

There's more to questioning students than just checking their understanding. Simple questions require students to define, list, classify, recall or do something. Complex questions ask them to explain, challenge, compare or contrast, analyse, evaluate things, or hypothesise about them.

Bloom's Taxonomy (1956) categorises the way people learn into three domains. One of these is the cognitive domain, which emphasises intellectual outcomes. This domain is further divided into sub-categories or levels. The key words used and the type of questions asked can encourage critical thinking, especially at the higher levels.

Level 1: Knowledge	Exhibits previously learned material by recalling facts, terms, basic concepts and answers.
Key words	Who, what, why, when, omit, where, which, choose, find, how, define, label, show, spell, list, match, name, relate, tell, recall, select.
Questions	What is...? How is...? Where is...? When did ....happen? How did ...... happen? How would you explain? Why did...? How would you describe...?	When did...? Can you recall...? How would you show...? Can you select...? Who were the main...? Can you list three...? Which one...? Who was...?
Level 2: Comprehension	Demonstrating understanding of facts and ideas by organising, comparing, translating, interpreting, giving descriptions and stating main ideas.
Key words	Compare, contrast, demonstrate, interpret, explain, extend, illustrate, infer, outline, relate, rephrase, translate, summarize, show, classify.
Questions	How would you classify the type of...? How would you compare...? contrast...? Will you state or interpret in your own words...? How would you rephrase the meaning of...? What facts or ideas show...? What is the main idea of...?	Which statements support...? Can you explain what is happening... what is meant...? What can you say about...? Which is the best answer...? How would you summarise...?
Level 3: Application	Solving problems by applying acquired knowledge, facts, techniques and rules in a different way.
Key words	Apply, build, choose, construct, develop, interview, make use of, organize, experiment with, plan, select, solve, utilize, model, identify.
Questions	How would you use...? What examples can you find to...? How would you solve... using what you have learned...? How would you organise... to show...? How would you show your understanding of...? What approach would you use to...?	How would you apply what you learned, to develop...? What other way would you plan to...? What would result if...? Can you made use of the facts to...? What elements would you choose to change...? What questions would you ask in an interview with...?
Level 4: Analysis	Examining and breaking information into parts by identifying motives or causes; making inferences and finding evidence to support generalisations.
Key words	Analyse, categorise, classify, compare, contrast, discover, dissect, divide, examine, inspect, simplify, survey, take part in, test for, distinguish, list, distinction, theme, relationships, function, motive, inference, assumption, conclusion.
Questions	What are the parts or features of...? How is ... related to...? Why do you think...? What is the theme...? What motive is there...? Can you list the parts...? What inference can you make...? What conclusions can you draw...?	How would you classify...? How would you categorise...? Can you identify the difference parts...? What evidence can you find...? What is the relationship between...? Can you make a distinction between...? What is the function of...? What ideas justify...?
Level 5: Synthesis	Compiling information together in a different way by combining elements in a new pattern or proposing alternative solutions.
Key words	Build, choose, combine, compile, compose, construct, create, design, develop, estimate, formulate, imagine, invent, make up, originate, plan, predict, propose, solve, solution, suppose, discuss, modify, change, original, improve, adapt, minimise, maximise, delete, theorise, elaborate, test, improve, happen, change.
Questions	What changes would you make to solve...? How would you improve...? What would happen if...? Can you elaborate on the reason...? Can you propose an alternative...? Can you invent...? How would you adapt..... to create a different...? How could you change (modify) the plot (plan) ...? What could be done to minimise (maximise)...? What way would you design...?	What could be combined to improve (change)...? Suppose you could .... what would you do .? How would you test...? Can you formulate a theory for...? Can you predict the outcome if...? How would you estimate the results for...? What facts can you compile...? Can you construct a model that would change...? Can you think of an original way for the...?
Level 6: Evaluation	Presenting and defending opinions by making judgements about information, validity of ideas or quality of work based on a set of criteria.
Key words	Award, choose, conclude, criticise, decide, defend, determine, dispute, evaluate, judge, justify, measure, compare, mark, rate, recommend, rule on, select, agree, interpret, explain, appraise, prioritise, opinion, support, importance, criteria, prove, disprove, assess, influence, perceive, value, estimate, influence, deduct.
Questions	Do you agree with the actions...? with the outcomes...? What is your opinion of...? How would you prove...? disprove...? Can you assess the value or importance of...? Would it be better if ...? Why did they (the character) choose...? What would you recommend...? How would you rate the...? What would you cite to defend the actions of...? How would you evaluate...? How could you determine...?	What choice would you have made...? What would you select...? How would you prioritise...? What judgment would you make about...? Based on what you know, how would you explain...? What information would you use to support the view...? How would you justify...? What data was used to make the conclusion...? Why was it better that...? How would you prioritise the facts...? How would you compare the ideas..? people...?

Critical Thinking Across the Curriculum Project.
Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 2 September, 2004.
http://www.kcmetro.cc.mo.us/longview/ctac/blooms.htm

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Using questions to encourage critical thinking

Questions can be open or closed (requiring just a simple Yes/No answer), procedural (in laboratories), confrontational, probing, or prompting. The following table outlines some of the more effective ways to ask questions to encourage critical thinking in class.

Questioning Strategy	Example
Ask open questions that have more than one answer.	"How do you think the situation in Iraq will be resolved?"
Ask focused questions.	"Can you give an example of political bias from today's newspaper?"
Ask questions that don't reveal your own bias.	"Why are some politicians more persuasive than others?"
Ask one question at a time.	There are three questions here, the last two of which the student would very likely forget before answering: "Can you explain how the principles of classical rhetoric were manifested in the political speeches made by world leaders during the war with Iraq, and what the likely implications might be for future politicians, giving some examples to illustrate your main points?"
Give students time to think before responding.	"Would you like to take two minutes to write your answer down first?"
Ask students to raise their own questions.	"What questions do you have about.?"
Use questions to change the pace.	"From all the discussion we've had, Karen, can you summarise the main points?"
Use probing questions.	"So, ok, if you've analysed this in some detail, please tell us what you found and explain its significance."

Adapted from: Gross Davis, B. (1993). Tools for Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, pp. 85-88.

Managing students' questions

Managing students' questions so that everyone has the chance to ask, and be answered, takes some planning and thoughtful facilitation. Some suggestions are given below:

• ask students to prepare their questions before the class and come with them written down;
• ask students to give you an example in their response so you know they understand;
• listen closely to the student's question and test your understanding by seeing if the group agrees or disagrees with it;
• show your attention to the students' questions by eye contact and other non-verbal gestures;
• acknowledge interesting questions and answers;
• be fair in taking questions and answers from the group;
• structure and sequence questions so the whole group is involved in responding;
• involve quieter students by including them in the discussion;
• emphasise the quality of the question or response, not the student who asked or gave it; and
• if certain questions are better dealt with in a later class, or after class, say so.

Adapted from: Gross Davis, B. (1993). Tools for Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, pp. 85-88.

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Using the Socratic questioning approach

The Socratic method 'leads' students from a starting point where they may have considered only one possible explanation, cause, or reason through a network of possible options, towards a considered resolution to an issue or problem. It involves intensive and focused dialogue between lecturer and student/s, so that each question and response builds incrementally on the preceding. This approach encourages self-reflection, analysis and critical evaluation.

Some examples of a 'hierarchy' of Socratic question types, which move from the simple to the more complex, appear below.

A hierarchy of questions to develop critical-thinking skills
Questions of clarification	What do you mean by...? How does... relate to...? Why do you say that?
Questions that probe assumptions	What are you assuming here? What could we assume instead? Why would someone make that assumption?
Questions that probe reasons and evidence	How do you know? What difference does that make? What would you say to someone who said that...?
Questions about viewpoints and perspectives	What are you implying by saying that...? What effect would that have? What might an alternative be?
Questions that probe implications and consequences	So if you say..., you'll have to agree that.Is this really what you mean to say? Why is this issue important? Is this the most important question, or is there an underlying question that is really the issue?
Questions about the question	Is this the same issue as...? Would... put the question differently? Can we break this question down a little?

Adapted from: Paul, R. (1993). Critical thinking: How to prepare students for a rapidly changing world. In Tutorial on Problem-Based Learning/Taxonomy of Socratic Questioning: Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 20 March, 2006.
http://www-ed.fnal.gov/trc/tutorial/taxonomy.html

Further information on Socratic questioning strategies can be found at:

The Socratic Method.

Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 20 March, 2006
http://www.str.org/site/News2?page=NewsArticle&id=5631&printer_friendly=1

What is the Socratic Method?

Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 20 March, 2006
http://www.greatbooksacademy.org/html/what_is_the_socratic_method_html

 

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